Liu Fa (“Six Scripts”)
Fall 2020
For the Art of China Course at Arizona State University
Liu fa, meaning “six scripts”, defines the grouping of the six different scripts of Chinese calligraphy: zhuanshu (seal script), lishu (clerical script), kaishu (regular/standard script), xingshu (running script), caoshu (cursive script), kuang caoshu (crazy/mad cursive script). Chinese calligraphy has been around for thousands of years with the earliest examples dating from the Shang Dynasty. Found on oracle bones and shells, this earlier script (jiaguwen) is not one of the liu fa, but it is the precursor or ancestor of the liu fa. So, when did each of the liu fa come into existence? What exactly are the different scripts? What were and are they mainly used for? And, how did they become a part of not only Chinese culture, but also a prominent art form even up to today?
It is clear, though, that by the end of the Han Dynasty, and during the early Tang Dynasty the liu fa had reached their final culmination. Though the technique and foundation of each script is set by the end of the Tang Dynasty, the styles are unique to each hand that writes them, as “It is commonly believed in China that calligraphy expresses the personality of the writer.”1
Fig. 1 - Chiang Yee. Chinese Calligraphy: An Introduction to Its Aesthetic and Technique: Third Edition. Harvard University Press. January 1, 1974. Pg. 34
Earliest Script (Jiaguwen)
First being known as originating from the Shang Dynasty, jiaguwen or an earlier form, may have actually existed long before this as it developed from an earlier form of pictographs and ideograms into notches or strokes that formed the early characters of Chinese writing (Fig. 1). In fact, there are some examples of these pictographs and ideograms found belonging to earlier dates prior to the Shang Dynasty. Jiaguwen inscriptions (both written and incised) are found on bones and tortoise shells, which were primarily used for divination (Fig. 2). The practice of divination on bones and shells dates from before the Shang Dynasty, but it wasn’t until the Shang Dynasty that they were written on using the jiaguwen script. This tradition continued into the Zhou Dynasty, being transferred sometimes onto bamboo/wood and silk, but seemed to stop by the time of the Qin Dynasty.
Fig. 2 - Oracle Bone Inscription.
Tseun-Hsuin Tsien. Written on Bamboo & Silk: The Beginnings of Chinese Books and Inscriptions: Second Edition. The University of Chicago Press. 2004. Pg. 34
There are also inscriptions in both jiaguwen and earlier forms of zhuanshu (seal script) that have been found on bronzes from the Zhou Dynasty to the later Han Dynasty and on clay lasting from Neolithic times to the later Han Dynasty as well. The practice of divination stopped during the Qin Dynasty due to “the unification of the empire by the First Emperor of Qin,” when “all metal objects in the country were collected by the government, and the manufacture of bronze vessels for use in ceremonials practically ceased.”2 Though first used primarily for divination and ceremonial purposes, inscriptions and writings of jiaguwen were also used to record transactions and historical events. Later on, being of considerably finer quality than bones, shells, bamboo/wood, and silk, inscriptions in bronzes recorded historical events, gifts, and notable records meant to last for a long time and passed down through generations. These inscriptions eventually developed into the earliest forms of zhuanshu (seal script), known as the Great Seal script. By the end of the later Han Dynasty, inscriptions on bronzes and clay seemed to have “almost completely ceased to function as historical records.”3
Interestingly, during the Shang Dynasty there are known to have been about at least 5,000 characters, by the Zhou Dynasty, about 4,000 characters, and during the Qin, about 10,000 characters, and by the end of the Han Dynasty, about 1,000 known characters. This is due to the number of known characters on the bone, shell, bronze, and clay inscriptions. It is easy to understand that the number of characters is due to the transition from a comparatively simple life to a more complex society as needs developed. It is also understandable as has been seen in the Chinese language throughout history that there have been additions, modifications, and simplifications that have resulted in the current number of characters and their forms; today, there are about 250,000 characters. Another interesting fact is that “oracle inscriptions on bones and shells are generally read from top to bottom, in the same order that we follow today. But there seem to have been no definite rules for the arrangement of the vertical lines, since they are read sometimes from right to left and sometimes from left to right.”4
Archaic Scripts
During the Qin Dynasty, Qin Shihuangdi unified China in not only land, but also in culture and language. With the help of the Prime Minister Li Su, small seal script or zhuanshu was defined and standardized. No longer were the characters written in varying sizes and thicknesses, at this point, a standard configuration was developed, one where each character “fit within the regular rectangular spaces of an imaginary grid, a rule that was to apply to all basic character forms down to”5 today. This development in the standardization of composition and form “marked a final stage in the evolution of Chinese archaic scripts”.6
Fig. 3 - Weng Chengming. Inscription accompanying the “Cho-cheng-yuan”. Dated 1533
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.
Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 50
Both straight, curvy and with less strokes than the Great Seal script, the characters of the zhuanshu script (seal script; Fig. 3) contain strokes that can be recognized in the other liu fa, but also contains elements that are reminiscent of the earlier pictographs and ideograms found in jiaguwen script. Though considered an archaic form of Chinese writing/calligraphy, zhuanshu has still been practiced from the Qin Dynasty until today. During the Tang Dynasty, the zhuanshu script was affected by the kaishu script (regular/standard script), which resulted in a lack of richness and variety found during the Han Dynasty. The Song Dynasty “calligraphers preserved the Tang seal script style, tended to specialize, and generally did not write in other scripts.”7 Throughout the history of China there have been revivals of the past that have resulted in the study of earlier scripts in their forms and styles, including the zhuanshu script.
Fig. 4 - Weng Chengming. Essay on Streams and Rocks, following painting by Lu Chih
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.
Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 74
Developed during the latter part of the Qin Dynasty, lishu or clerical script (Fig. 4) resulted for a need to write faster and simpler. Created by Cheng Miao in prison, lishu “was adopted almost universally for official purposes, for which it was more convenient than Seal writing, which the clerks found slow and laborious.”8 In fact, lishu was considered the “short-hand” version of zhuanshu and at the start of the Han Dynasty became the official script of the whole country. As an abbreviated form of zhuanshu, lishu rendered the “graceful, curvilinear brushstrokes” of zhuanshu into “simpler angular forms.”9 During the Han Dynasty, lishu developed into a more mature form that has remained to this day, where from zhuanshu to lishu, “even-pressured, contained stroke yielded to modulated, flaring brush movements, and curves supplanted by straight lines and angles.”10
Modern Scripts
From the time between the Han and Tang Dynasties, four other scripts amongst the liu fa developed out of the lishu script: kaishu, xingshu, caoshu, kuang caoshu. Each of these scripts formed out of a need to write faster and simpler. Developing alongside each other, kaishu, xingshu, caoshu, and kuang caoshu, all originate from the same script, lishu, and played off of each other during the time between the Han and Tang Dynasties. These scripts became known as the modern scripts, as lishu fell into the category of archaic scripts with zhuanshu.
Fig. 5 - Chou Mi. The Most Fragrant Flower, colophon to Narcissi, painting by Chao Mengchien
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.
Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 168
Reaching its finalization in the early Tang Dynasty, kaishu or regular/standard script (Fig. 5), combines “the most advanced brush techniques of the different script types which had developed in the intervening years. …Standard script entailed extra movements, pauses, and changes of brush direction, as well as variations in pressure and speed.”11 Due to its complete and distinct shapes, simplicity, convenience, and legibility, kaishu never had any changes after the Tang Dynasty and resulted in its use as the official script for everyday use since its finalization.
However, three other scripts, xingshu, caoshu, and kuang caoshu, took an even freer, faster, and simpler approach compared to kaishu. Xingshu, caoshu, and kuang caoshu are considered to be the most informal of all the liu fa. In fact, these three scripts have been seen written separately and together (running-cursive style).
Fig. 6 - Weng Chengming. Sunset on the Chin and Chiao Mountains. Dated 1521
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.
Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 158
Xingshu or running script (Fig. 6), much like kaishu gained its final form during the Tang Dynasty and was “developed as a semi-cursive form of clerical and regular scripts and freed the calligrapher from their formal constraints.”12 Xingshu, which is every bit as carefully executed as kaishu, eventually replaced kaishu for daily use, though kaishu was and still is considered the official script. Xingshu could be considered the basic handwriting form equivalent to Western handwriting as it takes on a similar speed with the same separation of characters that Western handwriting does between letters. Stylistically for xingshu, it “combines the legibility of standard script with the artistic freedom of cursive.”13
Fig. 7 - Shen Tu. Transcription of Preface and Eight Poems. Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy. Yale University Press. January 1, 1980.
Pg. 106
Fig. 8 - Chen Shun. Thoughts on an Ancient Site. Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy. Yale University Press. January 1, 1980.
Pg. 111
As for caoshu or (modern) cursive script (Fig. 7) and kuang caoshu or crazy/mad cursive script (Fig. 8), they went even further in speed and simplicity, almost practically excluding the imaginary square boundaries previously standardized during the Qin Dynasty. Caoshu and kuang caoshu was the result of calligraphers wanting to express their individualistic and freer artistic expressions and scholars wanting to write faster (an even faster short-hand). During the evolution of caoshu, there were three developments: draft-cursive, modern cursive (or simply cursive), mad/wild cursive. Both the caoshu or (modern) cursive and kuang caoshu or crazy/mad cursive replaced the earlier draft-cursive script, which developed during the Eastern Han period, and was also a form of short-hand out of a desire for something faster than lishu.
Starting from draft-cursive, which “stressed the action of the brush-tip, abbreviating or linking several strokes into one or two movements”, modern cursive or caoshu, “evolved into more sustained and carefully articulated brush movements… Connections between two or more characters in a vertical column also developed.”14 During the period between the Han and Tang Dynasties, caoshu, much like the other modern scripts developed into its final form, which went beyond official use into more artistic uses resulting in calligraphy being seen more as an art form. This did not mean that zhuanshu, lishu, kaishu, and xingshu were also not considered by calligraphers and scholars as art. In fact, they were included together (hence being categorized under the name liu fa), as kaishu is used as the first step in learning Chinese calligraphy.
During the Tang Dynasty, caoshu underwent another change into kuang caoshu or crazy/mad cursive script. During this time, “literature and art flourished… in the hands of scholars and calligraphers.”15 Kuang caoshu developed from caoshu more connections between characters along the vertical columns and a more exaggerated writing, which gives it the appearance of being written in a hurry and practically illegible. The name kuang caoshu derives from one of the prominent calligraphers in this style, Huaisu, who had the nickname “wild monk”.
Uses of the Liu Fa
Throughout the history of China, an interest in the past revived the interest and styles of past calligraphy masters and scripts dating all the way back to the bones, shells, and bronzes from the Shang Dynasty to the Han Dynasty, as well as interest in the final forms of each of the modern scripts by the end of the Tang Dynasty. As mentioned earlier, bronzes ceased to contain inscriptions by the end of the Han Dynasty. At this point the writing and development of the liu fa moved to strictly bamboo/wood and silk, and eventually included paper. It is believed that because of the form of bamboo slips, for writing, that the scripts took on their traditional vertical format from top to bottom. After all, “Bamboo and wood were the earliest materials used for books and documents in China and held a strong and far-reaching impact on Chinese culture.”16 However, due to the importance of bamboo/wood, it did not fall out of use when silk came into use for writing, and bamboo/wood and silk did not fall out of use when paper came into use. The use of bamboo/wood ended about the 4th century AD; silk was in use from about the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD; paper was in use from about the 1st century AD to today.
Fig. 9 - Chao Mengfu. Twin Pines against a Flat Vista
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.
Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 190-191
It can be seen that the tools and materials for writing influenced and were influenced by Chinese calligraphy as an art and liu fa as a form of writing. Eventually as the liu fa became one with Chinese calligraphy as an art form, it became integrated into painting as poems, colophons, and frontispieces. In a handscroll (Fig. 9), the text would precede the painting, and with hanging scrolls (Fig. 10), album leaves, and fans, text would almost fill the empty spaces surrounding the painting. Colophons would be seen throughout, though they usually presided at the beginning or the end of the painting(s). Typically, text that accompanies paintings were usually not written by the artist. Most were written by admirers and owners of the painting throughout its existence. These usually included signatures, dates, and places of origins.
Fig. 10 - Chang Chung. Bird and Peach Blossoms
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy.
Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 187
One way that people would “stamp” their ownership, would be to apply seals that were carved out of wood, pressed in ink, and then stamped on the surface. The script used for these seals are none other than the zhuanshu script or seal script. In earlier times when liu fa was written on bamboo/wood, seals would be pressed into clay that was stuck onto the surface of the book or document. Another way would be to sign their name using one of the liu fa. All of the liu fa can be seen as text both on documents and accompanying paintings as words, phrases, or whole poems.
Many painters would actually leave spaces for people to write on, however, over time more than they probably intended or guessed would write on their scrolls, leaves or fans, and would end up sometimes filling the entire empty space around the painting or have more silk or paper added to the ends. For an artist who combined painting, poetry, and calligraphy into one scroll or other format, this work would be considered to have the “three perfections”. These works are rare and typically date from the Yuan Dynasty till today. Since the liu fa’s admirations as an art form came during the period between the Han and Tang Dynasties, they have continued to be used separately and alongside other art forms, especially painting, with each script taking on prominence during a certain period due to the interests of the people at that time.
Bibliography
Sullivan, Michael; Vainker, Shelagh. The Arts of China: Sixth Edition. University of California Press. Revised August 2018.
J. Goldberg, Stephen. China, People’s Republic of: Calligraphy. Oxford Art Online. Updated January 22, 2014.
Tseun-Hsuin Tsien. Written on Bamboo & Silk: The Beginnings of Chinese Books and Inscriptions: Second Edition. The University of Chicago Press. 2004.
Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy. Yale University Press. January 1, 1980.
Chiang Yee. Chinese Calligraphy: An Introduction to Its Aesthetic and Technique: Third Edition. Harvard University Press. January 1, 1974.
Notes
1 Chiang Yee. Chinese Calligraphy: An Introduction to Its Aesthetic and Technique: Third Edition. Harvard University Press. January 1, 1974. Pg. 11
2 Tseun-Hsuin Tsien. Written on Bamboo & Silk: The Beginnings of Chinese Books and Inscriptions: Second Edition. The University of Chicago Press. 2004. Pg. 50
3 Ibid., Pg. 40
4 Ibid., Pg. 35
5 J. Goldberg, Stephen. China, People’s Republic of: Calligraphy. Oxford Art Online. Updated January 22, 2014. Pg. 210
6 Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy. Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 43
7 Ibid., Pg. 44
8 Chiang Yee. Chinese Calligraphy: An Introduction to Its Aesthetic and Technique: Third Edition. Harvard University Press. January 1, 1974. Pg. 59
9 J. Goldberg, Stephen. China, People’s Republic of: Calligraphy. Oxford Art Online. Updated January 22, 2014. Pg. 210
10 Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy. Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 55
11 Ibid., Pg. 138
12 J. Goldberg, Stephen. China, People’s Republic of: Calligraphy. Oxford Art Online. Updated January 22, 2014. Pg. 214
13 Fu, Shen C.Y. Traces of the Brush: Studies in Chinese Calligraphy. Yale University Press. January 1, 1980. Pg. 127
14 Ibid., Pg. 81
15 Ibid., Pg. 81
16 Tseun-Hsuin Tsien. Written on Bamboo & Silk: The Beginnings of Chinese Books and Inscriptions: Second Edition. The University of Chicago Press. 2004. Pg. 96
17 Ibid., Pg. 98